• Meanwhile, at the northern margins, some northward expansion of the boreal forests into tundra regions would occur, although greatly delayed by the comparatively slow decay of the underlying permafrost and the poor quality of the soils in many parts in the tundra landscape.

• Europe at present is predominantly a region of fragmented natural or semi-natural habitats in a highly urbanized landscape.

• Any changes will occur in a landscape already fragmented by agricultural and urban development; such changes will add to existing problems such as land degradation, weeds and pest infestations.